MICRO TEACHING

Micro teaching was developed in the early and mid-1960’s by Dwight Allen and his colleagues at the Stanford teacher education programme. The Stanford model emphasized a teach, review and reflect, re-teach approach, using actual school students as authentic audiences.

A micro lesson is an opportunity to present a samples snapshot‖ of what/how you teach and to get some feedback from colleagues about how it was received. The microteaching cycle starts with planning. In order to reduce the complexities involved in teaching, the student teacher is asked to plan a micro lesson‖ i.e a short lesson for 5-10 minutes which he will teach in front of a micro class‖ i.e necessary.

DEFINITIONS OF MICRO- TEACHING

Micro-teaching has been defined in a number of ways. Some selected definitions are given below:

ü Micro-teaching is a scaled down teaching encounter in class size and class time.

ü Micro-teaching is defined as a system of controlled practice that makes it possible to concentrate on specified teaching behaviour and to practices teaching under controlled conditions.

ü Micro-teaching is a teacher education technique which allows teachers to apply clearly defined teaching skills to carefully prepared lessons in a planned series of 5-10 minutes encounter with a small group of real students, often with an opportunity to observe the result on video-tape.

ü Micro-teaching is a scaled down teaching encounter in which a teacher teaches a small unit to a group of five pupils for a small period of 5-20 minutes. Such a situation offers a helpful setting for an experienced or inexperienced teacher to acquire new teaching skills and to refine old ones.

THE BEGGININGS OF MICRO- TEACHING

Stanford University developed Microteaching in 1963 as a part of an experimental program. It was viewed as feasible in making student- teachers aware of the realities of teaching. It also served as a measurable tool in identifying teaching skills prior to actual teaching.

PURPOSES OF MICRO- TEACHING

There are two purposes of Microteaching: (a) for student- teachers to develop teaching skills under controlled conditions without risking the learning of the pupils, and (b) for experienced teachers to examine and refine their techniques.

PHASES OF MICRO- TEACHING:

According to J.C. Clift and others, micro-teaching procedure has three phases:

1. Knowledge acquisition phase: In this phase, the student teacher attempt to acquire knowledge about the skill- it’s rational, its role in class room and its component behaviours. For this he reads relevant literature. He also observes demonstration lesson-mode of presentation of the skill. The student teacher gets theoretical as well as practical knowledge of the skill.

2. Skill acquisition phase: On the basis of the model presented to the student-teacher, he prepares a micro-lesson and practices the skill and carries out the micro-teaching cycle. There are two components of this phase:

(a)  feedback

(b)  micro-teaching settings.

Micro-teaching settings include conditions like the size of the micro-class, duration of the micro-lesson, supervisor, types of students etc.

3. Transfer phase: Here the student-teacher integrates the different skills. In place of artificial situation, he teaches in the real classroom and tries to integrate all the skills.

Micro teaching was developed in the early and mid-1960’s by Dwight Allen and his colleagues at the Stanford teacher education programme. The Stanford model emphasized a teach, review and reflect, re-teach approach, using actual school students as authentic audiences.

Micro teaching Cycle

The above diagram gives us an outlook about Micro teaching process. The cycle continues up to the extent when a trainee will able to master a specific skill.

PLAN

This involves the selection of the topic and related content of such a nature in which the use of components of the skill under practice may be made easily and conveniently. The topic is analysed into different activities of the teacher and the pupils. The activities are planned in such a logical sequence where maximum applications of the components of a skill are possible.

TEACH

 This involves the attempts of the teacher trainee to use the components of the skill in suitable situations coming up in the process of teaching-learning as per his/her planning of activities. If the situation is different and not as visualised in the planning of the activities, the teacher should modify his/her behaviour as per the demand of the situation in the class. He should have the courage and confidence to handle the situation arising in the class effectively.

FEEDBACK

This term refers to giving information to the teacher trainee about his performance. The information includes the points of strength as well as weakness relating to his/her performance. This helps the teacher trainee to improve upon his/her performance in the desired direction.

RE-PLAN 

The teacher trainee replans his lesson incorporating the points of strength and removing the points not skillfully handled during teaching in the previous attempt either on the same topic or on another topic suiting to the teacher trainee for improvement.

RE-TEACH

This involves teaching to the same group of pupils if the topic is changed or to a different group of pupils if the topic is the same. This is done to remove boredom or monotony of the pupil. The teacher trainee teaches the class with renewed courage and confidence to perform better than the previous attempt.

RE-FEEDBACK

This is the most important component of Micro-teaching for behaviour modifiction of teacher trainee in the desired direction in each and every skill practice.

In the Micro-teaching cycle, the same steps are involved. Firstly the teacher trainee knows the behaviours (components of skill) to be practiced. Secondly he practices such a behaviour during teach session. Thirdly he gets the feedback on the basis of the observation of his performance made by the supervisor. Finally the teacher trainee improves upon his/her behaviour (performance) as desired.

ADVANTAGES OF MICROTEACHING

Microteaching has several advantages. It focuses on sharpening and developing specific teaching skills and eliminating errors. It enables understanding of behaviours important in classroom teacher. It enables projection of model instructional skills. It provides expert supervision and a constructive feedback and above all if provides for repeated practice without adverse consequences to the teacher or his students.

In our daily life, the busy schedule tends us to invite more problems and we get caught in situation by one way or another. If these problems are not attended properly; these tend to tease you on every step. They say if you are not a part of solution than you are a part of problem. However the significance lies in the solution of the problem, no matter what procedure one adopts to acquire the solution.

PREPARATION OF MICRO TEACHING

To prepare a short lesson for a small group of learner. Your lesson can be excerpted from the beginning, middle or end of one course lesson and you will be able to explain this in setting up your lesson and as part of your application or instruction form. 

SAMPLE AND SAMPLING

INTRODUCTION

The researcher is concerned with the generalizability of the data beyond the sample. For studying any problem it is impossible to study the entire population. It is therefore convenient to pick out a sample out of the universe proposed to be covered by the study. The process of sampling makes it possible to draw valid inferences or generalizations on the basis of careful observation of variables within a small proportion of the population.

CONCEPT OF UNIVERSE, SAMPLE AND SAMPLING

Universe or Population: It refers to the totality of objects or individuals regarding which inferences are to be made in a sampling study. Or It refers to the group of people, items or units under investigation and includes every individual. First, the population is selected for observation and analysis.

Sample

It is a collection consisting of a part or subset of the objects or individuals of population which is selected for the purpose, representing the population sample obtained by collecting information only about some members of a population. It is the process of selecting a sample from the population. For this population is divided into a number of parts called Sampling Units.  

NEED FOR SAMPLING

ü  Large population can be conveniently covered.

ü  Time, money and energy is saved.

ü  Helpful when units of area are homogenous.

ü  Used when percent accuracy is not acquired.

ü  Used when the data is unlimited.

ADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING

Economical :Manageable sample will reduce the cost compare to entire population.

Increased speed :The process of research like collection of data, analysis and Interpretation of data etc take less time than the population.

Greater Scope :Handling data becomes easier and manageable in case of a sample. Moreover comprehensive scope and flexibility exists in the case of a sample.

Accuracy :Due to limited area of coverage, completeness and accuracy is possible. The processing of data is done accurately producing authentic results.

Rapport :Better rapport is established with the respondents, which helps in validity and reliability of the results.

DISADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING

Biasedness : Chances of biased selection leading to erroneous conclusions may prevail. Bias in the sample may be due to faulty method of selection of individuals or the nature of phenomenon itself.

Selection of true representative sample :It the problem under study is of a complex nature, it becomes difficult to select a true representative sample, otherwise results will not be accurate & will be usable.

Need for specialized knowledge : The researcher needs knowledge, training and experience in sampling technique, statistical analysis and calculation of probable error. Lack of those may lead to serious mistakes.

Changeability of units :If the units of population are not homogeneous, the sampling technique will be unscientific. At times, all the individuals may not be accessible or may be uncooperative. In such a case, they have o be replaced. This introduces a change in the subjects to be studied.

Impossibility of sampling :Sometimes population is too small or too heterogeneous to select a representative sample. In such cases ‘census study’ is the alternative (Information about each member of the population) Sampling error also comes because of expectation of high standard of accuracy.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE

A good sample should possess the following characteristics

      A true representative of the population

      Free from error due to bias

      Adequate in size for being reliable

      Units of sample should be independent and relevant

      Units of sample should be complete precise and up to date

      Free from random sampling error

      Avoiding substituting the original sample for convenience. 

TYPES OF RESEARCH

FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH

It is basic approach which is for the sake of knowledge. Fundamental research is usually carried on in a laboratory or other sterile environment, sometimes with animals. This type of research, which has no immediate or planned application, may later result in further research of an applied nature. Basic researches involve the development of theory. It is not concerned with practical applicability and most closely resembles the laboratory conditions and controls usually associated with scientific research. It is concerned establishing generally principles of learning. For example, much basic research has been conducted with animals to determine principles of reinforcement and their effect on learning. Like the experiment of skinner on cats gave the principle of conditioning and reinforcement.

 According to Travers, basic research is designed to add to an organized body of scientific knowledge and does not necessarily produce results of immediate practical value. Basic research is primarily concerned with the formulation of the theory or a contribution to the existing body of knowledge. Its major aim is to obtain and use the empirical data to formulate, expand or evaluate theory. This type of research draws its pattern and spirit from the physical sciences. It represents a rigorous and structured type of analysis. It employs careful sampling procedures in order to extend the findings beyond the group or situations and thus develops theories by discovering proved generalizations or principles. The main aim of basic research is the discovery of knowledge solely for the sake of knowledge.

Another system for classification is sometimes used for the research dealing with these who types of questions. This classification is based on goal or objective of the research. The first type of research, which has its aim obtaining the empirical data that can be used to formulate, expand or evaluate theory is called basic research. This type of study is not oriented in design or purpose towards the solution of practical problem. Its essential aim is to expand the frontiers of knowledge without regard to practical application. Of course, the findings may eventually apply to practical problems that have social value. For example, advances in the practice of medicine are dependent upon basic research in biochemistry and microbiology. Likewise, progress in educational practices has been related to progress in the discovery of general laws through psychological, educational, sociological research.

APPLIED RESEARCH

The second type of research which aims to solve an immediate practical problem, is referred to as applied research. According to Travers, ―applied research is undertaken to solve an immediate practical problem and the goal of adding to scientific knowledge is secondary.

It is research performed in relation to actual problems and under the conditions in which they are found in practice. Through applied research, educators are often able to solve their problems at the appropriate level of complexity, that is, in the classroom teaching learning situations. We may depend upon basic research for the discovery of more general laws of learning, but applied research much is conducted in the order to determine how these laws operate in the classroom. This approach is essential if scientific changes in teaching practice are to be effected. Unless educators undertake to solve their own practical problems of this type no one else will. It should be pointed out that applied research also uses the scientific method of enquiry. We find that there is not always a sharp line of demarcation between basic and applied research. Certainly applications are made from theory to help in the solution of practical problems.

We attempt to apply the theories of learning in the classroom. On the other hand, basic research may depend upon the findings of the applied research to complete its theoretical formulations. A classroom learning experiment can throw some light on the learning theory. Furthermore, observations in the practical situations serve to test theories and may lead to the formulation of new theories. Most educational research studies are classified at the applied end of the continuum; they are more concerned with ―what‖ works best than with ―why‖. For example, applied research tests the principle of reinforcement to determine their effectiveness in improving learning (e.g. programmed instruction) and behaviour (e.g. behaviour modification).

Applied research has most of the characteristics of fundamental research, including the use of sampling techniques and the subsequent inferences about the target population. Its purpose, however, is improving a product or a process – testing theoretical concepts in actual problem situations. Most educational research is applied research, for it attempts to develop generalizations about teaching – learning processes and instructional materials.

           The applied research may also be employed a university or research institute or may be found in private industry or working for a government agency. In the field of education such a person might be employed by a curriculum publishing company, a state department of education, or a college of education at a university. Applied researches are also found in the settings in which the application or practitioner‘s role is primary. This is where the teachers, clinical psychologists, school psychologists, social workers physicians, civil engineers, managers, advertising specialists and so on are found.

 Many of theses people receive training in doing research, and they use this knowledge for two purpose.

(1) To help practitioners understand, evaluate, and use the research produced by basic and applied researches in their own fields and,

(2) To develop a systematic way of addressing the practical problems and questions that arise as they practice their professions. For example, a teacher who notices that a segment of the class is not adequately motivated in science might look at the research literature on teaching science and then systematically try some of the findings suggested by the research. Some of the recent focus of applied educational research have been grading practices, collective bargaining for school personnel, curriculum content, instructional procedures, educational technology, and assessment of achievement. The topics have been investigated with an applied research because the questions raised in these areas generally have limited or no concrete knowledge of theory we can draw upon directly to aid in decision making.

ACTION RESEARCH 

Research designed to uncover effective ways of dealing with problems in the real world can be referred to as action research. This kind of research is not confined to a particular methodology or paradigm.

For example, a study of the effectiveness of training teenage parents to care for their infants. The study is based on statistical and other evidence that infants of teenage mothers seemed to be exposed to more risks than other infants. The mother and children were recruited for participation in the study while the children were still in neonate period. Mothers were trained at home or in an infant nursery.

A controlled group received no training. The mothers trained at home were visited at 2-weeks interval over a 12-month period. Those trained in nursery setting attended 3-days per week for 6 months, were paid minimum wage, and assisted as staff in centre. Results of the study suggested that the children of both group of trained mothers benefited more in terms of their health and cognitive measures than did the controlled children. Generally greater benefits were realized by the children of the mothers trained in the nursery that with the mothers trained at home. Thus the study shows that such researches have direct application to real world problems. Second, elements of both quantitative and qualitative approaches can be found in the study. For example, quantitative measure of weight, height, and cognitive skills were obtained in this study.

However, at the start itself from the personal impressions and observations without the benefit of systematic quantitative data, the researches was able to say that the mother in the nursery centre showed some unexpected vocational aspirations to become nurses. Third, treatments and methods that are investigated are flexible and might change during the study in response to the results as they are obtained. Thus, action research is more systematic and empirical than some other approaches to innovation and change, but it does not lead to careful controlled scientific experiments that are generalizable to a wide variety of situations and settings.

                    The purpose of action research is to solve classroom problems through the application of scientific methods. It is concerned with a local problem and is conducted in a local setting. It is not concerned with whether the results are generalizable to any other setting and is not characterized by the same kind of control evidence in other categories of research. The primary goal of action research is the solution of a given problem, not contribution to science. Whether the research is conducted in one classroom or many classrooms, the teacher is very much a part of the process. The more research trainings the teacher involved have had, the more likely it is that the research will produce valid, if not generalizable research. The value of action research is confined primarily to those who are conducting it. Despite its shortcomings, it does represents a scientific approach to the problem solving that is considerably better than changed based on the alleged effectiveness of untried procedures, and infinitely better than no changes at all.

It is a means by which concerned school personnel can attempt to improve the educational process, at least within their environment. Of course, the true value of action research to true scientific progress is limited. True progress requires the development of sound theories having implications for many classrooms, not just one or two. One sound theory that includes ten principles of learning may eliminate the need of hundreds of would – be action research studies. Given the current status of educational theory, however, action research provides immediate answers to problem that cannot wait for theoretical solutions. As John Best puts it, action research is focused on immediate applications. Its purposes is to improve school practices and at the same time, to improve those who try to improve the practices, to combine the research processes, habits of thinking, ability to work harmoniously with others, and professional spirit. If most classroom teachers are to be involved in research activity, it will probably be in the area of action research.

Many observers have projected action research nothing more than the application of common sense or good management. Whether or not it is worthy of the term research it does not apply scientific thinking and methods to real life problems and represents a greater improvement over teachers‘ subjective judgments and decision based upon stereotype thinking and limited personal experience.

The concept of action research under the leadership of Corey has been instrumental in bringing educational research nearer to educational practitioners. Action research is research undertaken by practitioners in order that they may attempt to solve their local, practical problems by using the method of science.

MEANING, STEPS AND SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

MEANING OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

Educational Research as nothing but cleansing of educational Research is nothing but cleansing of educational process. Many experts think Educational Research as under- According to Mouly, ―Educational Research is the systematic application of scientific method for solving for solving educational problem. Travers thinks, ―Educational Research is the activity for developing science of behavior in educational situations. It allows the educator to achieve his goals effectively.‖ According to Whitney, ―Educational Research aims at finding out solution of educational problems by using scientific philosophical method.‖ Thus, Educational Research is to solve educational problem in systematic and scientific manner, it is to understand, explain, predict and control human behaviour.

 Educational Research Characterizes as follows:

- It is highly purposeful.

- It deals with educational problems regarding students and teachers as well.

- It is precise, objective, scientific and systematic process of investigation.

- It attempts to organize data quantitatively and qualitatively to arrive at statistical inferences.

- It discovers new facts in new perspective. i. e. It generates new knowledge.

- It is based on some philosophic theory.

- It depends on the researchers ability, ingenuity and experience for its interpretation and conclusions.

- It needs interdisciplinary approach for solving educational problem.

- It demands subjective interpretation and deductive reasoning in some cases.

- It uses classrooms, schools, colleges department of education as the laboratory for conducting researches.

STEPS OF RESEARCH:

The various steps involved in the research process can be summarised as follows;

Step 1: Identifying the Gap in Knowledge The researcher, on the basis of experience and observation realises that some students in the class do not perform well in the examination. So he / she poses an unanswered question: ―Which factors are associated with students‘ academic performance?‖

Step 2 : Identifying the Antecedent / Causes On the basis of experience, observation and a review of related literature, he / she realises that students who are either very anxious or not at all anxious do not perform well in the examination. Thus he / she identifies anxiety as one of the factors that could be associated with students‘ academic performance.

Step 3 : Stating the Goals The researcher now states the goals of the study :

1. To ascertain the relationship of anxiety with academic performance of students.

2. To ascertain the gender differences in the anxiety and academic performance of students.

3. To ascertain the gender difference in the relationship of anxiety with academic performance of students.

Step 4 : Formulating Hypotheses The researcher may state his / her hypotheses as follows:

1. There is a significant relationship between anxiety and academic performance of students.

2. There is a significant gender difference in the anxiety and academic performance of students.

3. There is a significant gender difference in the relationship of anxiety with academic performance of students.

Step 5 : Collecting Relevant Information The researcher uses appropriate tools and techniques to measure anxiety and academic performance of students, selects a sample of students and collects data from them.

Step 6 : Testing the Hypotheses He / she now uses appropriate statistical techniques to verify and test the hypotheses of the study stated in Step 4.

Step 7 : Interpreting the Findings He / she interprets the findings in terms of whether the relationship between anxiety and academic performance is positive or negative, linear or curvilinear. He / she finds that this relationship is curvilinear i.e. when a student‘s anxiety is either very low or very high, his / her academic performance is found to be low. But when a student‘s anxiety is moderate, his / her academic performance is found to be high. He / she now tries to explain this finding based on logic and creativity.

Step 8 : Comparing the Findings with Prior researchers’ Findings At this step, the researcher tries to find out whether his / her conclusions match those of the prior researches or not. If not, then the researcher attempts to find out why conclusions do not match with other researches by analysing prior studies further.

Step 9 : Modifying Theory

On the basis of steps 7 and 8, the researcher speculates that anxiety alone cannot influence academic performance of students. There could be a third factor which influences the relationship between anxiety and academic performance of students. This third factor could be study habits of students. For instance, students who have very low level of anxiety may have neglected their studies through out the year and hence their academic performance is poor. On the other hand, students who have very high level of anxiety may

not be able to remember what they have learnt or cannot concentrate on studies due to stress or may fall sick very often and hence cannot study properly. Hence their academic performance is poor. However, students with a moderate level of anxiety are motivated enough to study regularly and systematically all through the year and hence their academic performance is high. Thus, the loosely structured theory on students‘ academic performance needs to incorporate one more variable, namely, study habits of students. In other words, it needs to be modified.

Step 10 : Asking New Questions Do study habits and anxiety interact with each other and influence academic performance of students? i.e. we can now start with a fresh topic of research involving three variables rather than two.

SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

Name of Educational Research changes with the gradual development occurs with respect to knowledge and technology, so Educational Research needs to extend its horizon. Being scientific study of educational process, it involves : - individuals (Student, teachers, educational managers, parents.) - institutions (Schools, colleges, research – institutes) It discovers facts and relationship in order to make educational process more effective. It relates social sciences like education. It includes process like investigation, planning (design) collecting data, processing of data, their analysis, interpretation and drawing inferences. It covers areas from formal education and conformal education as well.

RESEARCH DESIGNS - QUANTITATIVE

CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE RESEARCH

It is a type of descriptive research since it describes conditions that already exist. It is a form of investigation in which the researcher has no direct control over independent variable as its expression has already occurred or because they are essentially non-manipulable. It also attempts to identify reasons or causes of pre-existing differences in groups of individuals i.e. if a researcher observes that two or more groups are different on a variable, he tries to identify the main factor that has led to this difference. Another name for this type of research is ex post facto research (which in Latin means ―after the fact‖) since both the hypothesised cause and the effect have already occurred and must be studied in retrospect. Causal-comparative studies attempt to identify cause-effect relationships, correlational studies do not.

Causal-comparative studies involvcomparison, correlational studies involve relationship. However, neither method provides researchers with true experimental data. On the other hand, causal-comparative and experimental research both attempt to establish cause-and-effect relationships and both involve comparisons. In an experimental study, the researcher selects a random sample and then randomly divides the sample into two or more groups. Groups are assigned to the treatments and the study is carried out. However, in causal-comparative research, individuals are not randomly assigned to treatment groups because they already were selected into groups before the research began. In experimental research, the independent variable is manipulated by the researcher, whereas in causal-comparative research, the groups are already formed and already different on the independent variable. Inferences about cause-and-effect relationships are made without direct intervention, on the basis of concomitant variation of independent and dependent variables. The basic causal-comparative method starts with an effect and seeks possible causes. For example, if a researcher observes that the academic achievement of students from different schools. He may hypothesise the possible cause for this as the type of management of schools, viz. private-aided, private-unaided, or government schools (local or state or any other). He therefore decides to conduct a causal-comparative research in which academic achievement of students is the effect that has already occurred and school types by management is the possible hypothesised cause. This approach is known as retrospective causal-comparative research since it starts with the effects and investigates the causes.

In another variation of this type of research, the investigator starts with a cause and investigates its effect on some other variable. i.e. such research is concerned with the question ‗what is the effect of X on Y when X has already occurred?‘ For example, what long-term effect has occurred on the self-concept of students who are grouped according to ability in schools? Here, the investigator hypothesises that students who are grouped according to ability in schools are labelled ‗brilliant‘, ‗average‘ or ‗dull‘ and this over a period of time could lead to unduly high or unduly poor self-concept in them. This approach is known as prospective causal-comparative research since it starts with the causes and investigates the effects. However, retrospective causal-comparative studies are far more common in educational research.

Causal-comparative research involves two or more groups and one independent variable. The goal of causal-comparative research is to establish cause-and-effect relationships just like an experimental research. However, in causal-comparative research, the researcher is able to identify past experiences of the subjects that are consistent with a ‗treatment‘ and compares them with those subjects who have had a different treatment or no treatment. The causal-comparative research may also involve a pre-test and a post-test. For instance, a researcher wants to compare the effect of ―Environmental Education‖ in the B.Ed. syllabus on student-teachers‘ awareness of environmental issues and problems attitude towards environmental protection. Here, a researcher can develop and administer a pre-test before being taught the paper on ―Environmental Education‖ and a post-test after being taught the same. At the same time, the pre-test as well as the post-test are also administered to a group which was not taught the paper on ―Environmental Education‖. This is essentially a non-experimental research as there is no manipulation of the treatment although it involves a pre-test and a post-test. In this type of research, the groups are not randomly assigned to exposure to the paper on ―Environmental Education‖. Thus it is possible that other variables could also affect the outcome variables. Therefore, in a causal-comparative research, it is important to think whether differences other than the independent variable could affect the results. In order to establish cause-and-effect in a causal-comparative research, it is essential to build a convincing rational argument that the independent variable is influencing the dependent variable. It is also essential to ensure that other uncontrolled variables do not have an effect on the dependent variable. For this purpose, the researcher should try to draw a sample that minimises the effects of other extraneous variables. According to Picciano, ―In stating a hypothesis in a causal comparative study, the word ―effect‖ is frequently used‖.

Conducting a Causal-Comparative Study

Although the independent variable is not manipulated, there are control procedures that can be exercised to improve interpretation of results. Design and Procedure The researcher selects two groups of participants, accurately referred to as comparison groups. These groups may differ in two ways as follows:

(i) One group possesses a characteristic that the other does not.

(ii) Each group has the characteristic, but to differing degrees or amounts.

(iii) Definition and selection of the comparison groups are very important parts of the causal-comparative procedure.

(iv) The independent variable differentiating the groups must be clearly and operationally defined, since each group represents a different population.

(v) In causal-comparative research the random sample is selected from two already existing populations, not from a single population as in experimental research.

(vi) As in experimental studies, the goal is to have groups that are as similar as possible on all relevant variables except the independent variable.

(vii) The more similar the two groups are on such variables, the more homogeneous they are on everything but the independent variable.

Control Procedures

Lack of randomization, manipulation, and control are all sources of weakness in a causal-comparative study.

Random assignment is probably the single best way to try to ensure equality of the groups.

A problem is the possibility that the groups are different on some other important variable (e.g. gender, experience, or age) besides the identified independent variable.

Matching

      Matching is another control technique.

      If a researcher has identified a variable likely to influence performance on the dependent variable, the researcher may control for that variable by pair-wise matching of participants.

      For each participant in one group, the researcher finds a participant in the other group with the same or very similar score on the control variable.

      If a participant in either group does not have a suitable match, the participant is eliminated from the study.

      The resulting matched groups are identical or very similar with respect to the identified extraneous variable.

      The problem becomes serious when the researcher attempts to simultaneously match participants on two or more variables.

Comparing Homogeneous Groups or Subgroups

ü  To control extraneous variables, groups that are homogeneous with respect to the extraneous variable are compared.

ü  This procedure may lower the number of participants and limit the generalisability of the findings.

ü  A similar but more satisfactory approach is to form subgroups within each group that represent all levels of the control variable.

ü  Each group might be divided into two or more subgroups on the basis of high, average, and low levels of ‗Independent variable‘.

ü  Suppose the independent variable in the study is students‘ IQ. The subgroups then will comprise of high, average, and low levels of IQ. The existence of comparable subgroups in each group controls for IQ.

ü  In addition to controlling for the variable, this approach also permits the researcher to determine whether the independent variable affects the dependent variable differently at different levels of the control variable.

ü  The best approach is to build the control variable right into the research design and analyze the results in a statistical technique called factorial analysis of variance.

ü  A factorial analysis allows the researcher to determine the effect of the independent variable and the control variable on the dependent variable both separately and in combination.

ü  It permits determination of whether there is interaction between the independent variable and the control variable such that the independent variable operates differently at different levels of the control variable.

The Value of Causal-Comparative Research:

In a large majority of educational research especially in the fields of sociology of education and educational psychology, it is not possible to manipulate independent variables due to ethical considerations especially when one is dealing with variables such as anxiety, intelligence, home environment, teacher personality, negative reinforcement, equality of opportunity and so on. It is also not possible to control such variables as in an experimental research. For studying such topics and their influence on students, causal-comparative method is the most appropriate.

The Weaknesses of Causal-Comparative Research:

There are three major limitations of causal-comparative research. These include,

(a) lack of control or the inability to manipulate independent variables methodologically,

(b) the lack of power to assign subjects randomly to groups and

(c) the danger of inappropriate interpretations.

The lack of randomization, manipulation, and control factors make it difficult to establish cause-and-effect relationships with any degree of confidence. The statistical techniques used to compare groups in a causal-comparative research include the t-test when two groups are to be compared and ANOVA when more than two groups are to be compared. The technique of ANCOVA may also be used in case some other variables likely to influence the dependent variable need to be controlled statistically. Sometimes, chi square is also used to compare group frequencies, or to see if an event occurs more frequently in one group than another.

 Use of Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA)

It is used to adjust initial group differences on variables used in causal-comparative and experimental research studies. Analysis of covariance adjusts scores on a dependent variable for initial differences on some other variable related to performance on the dependent. Suppose we were doing a study to compare two methods, X and Y, of teaching sixth standard students to solve mathematical problems. Covariate analysis statistically adjusts the scores of method Y to remove the initial advantage so that the results at the end of the study can be fairly compared as if the two groups started equally.